Internal Diseconomies of Scale

Definition: Internal DOS are increases in costs that occur to a firm as a results of the expansion of the firm, which is the result of the firm's own policies and actions.

Beyond the optimum size of production (minimum of LRAC), diseconomies of scale cause LRAC to rise.

i. Complexity of Management

Large firms are more complex in organisation than small firms and require more skillful entrepreneurs and managers. It is difficult to find entrepreneurs and mangers whoa re capable of effectively co-ordinating and controlling very large enterprises. Moreover, as firms expand, ownership and management become more divorced, which may in turn result in principal-agent problem.Incentives for managers to reduce costs to increase profits may diminish.

A long chain of authority can lead to a rigid organisational system, leading to time lags in implementing decisions. This results in a loss of efficiency and higher costs. Moreover, extensive red-tape will slow down responses to changes in demand and supply.

ii. Strained relationships

When firms become too large, relationships tend to become impersonal. The relationship between management and employees is important for maintaining productivity and efficiency. A long chain of authority in large firms may lead to workers to feel that they are only a small cog in a very large machine and thus have no personal loyalty to the firm, leading to slacking, apathy and even strikes. Average costs could then rise.

Internal Economies of Scale

Definition: Savings in costs that occur to a firm as a result of the firm's expansion and have been created by the firm's own policies and actions. Costs per unit are falling.

i) Technical Economies of scale
LRAC falls as a firm's size grows largely due to technical and engineering factors

a) Factor Indivisibility Economies

Some inputs are of a minimum size and are indivisible.
Example: Combine harvesters and power transmission equipment.
These inputs are large and costly, but they can significantly increase output and reduce average costs of production. Such equipment cannot be used fully if the output is small. The plant would then be operating below its maximum capacity. The problem of indivisibilities is made worse when different machines, each of which is part of the production process, are of a different size. A larger plant size makes it possible to effectively use indivisible factors, raise average output and reduce long run average costs.

b)Economies arising from increased dimensions

Large machines and equipment may be more efficient simply because they have larger dimensions.
For example,a double-decker bus can carry twice as many passengers, but the initial cost is not twice as must nor is the running cost doubled because only one driver is required.
The cost advantages of increased dimensions can be most clearly seen in the "container principle". Any capital equipment that is used to contain materials, for example, a blast furnace or an oil tanker, will tend to cost less per unit of output the larger its size. This is due to the relationship between a container's volume and its surface area. Doubling the surface area more than doubles the volume that can be contained. This means that average cost of containing and transporting the material will fall.

c) Linked Process/ Multi-stage production economies

A large factory my be able to take a product through several stages in its manufacture. This saves time and cost in moving the semi finished product from one factory to another.

d) Economies arising from specialization and division of labour

In large scale plants, workers can do simpler and more repetitive jobs. With this specialisation and division of workers, less training is needed. Workers also become more efficient in their particular job, and less time is lost in workers switching from one operation to another.

e) By-product economies

Larger plants can make more exonomical use of its materials, for what might be waste to a small plant can often be economically used in the manufacture of by-products in a lkarger plant. A more efficient use of resources lowers average costs.

ii.Managerial/administrative economics of scale

As a firm expands its production, it is possible to practise functional specialisation by employing specialists like financial experts, research workers and managers. This division of work increases the experience of workers in their own areas of responsibility, which leads to greater efficiency. The doubling of the output will not require a doubling of staff and therefore average costs of production will fall.

iii. Marketing or commercial economies
Large firms have bargaining advantage and are accorded a preferential treatment by their suppliers because they buy raw and processed materials and components in bulk. They will be able to dictate their requirements with regard to price, quality and delivery more effectively.The unit cost of transporting the supplies is also lower because the cost of transportation does not increase at the same rate as the quantity of the supplies.

iv. Financial economies

Larger firms find it easier and cheaper to raise funds than smaller firms. Banks do not charge the standard rate for loans. Larger firms are given lower interest rates and larger loans because of better credit ratings and more collateral.

Large firms also tend to be public limited companies. Such firms can raise capital more easily through the issue of shares and debentures to the public. The public also tend to have more confidence in large well-known firms, preferring to hold their shares. They are consequently better able to take advantage of financial economies of scale.

v. Risk bearing economies

Risks can be divided into insurable and non-insurable risks.

Insurable risks are those whose probability of occurrence can be calculated and hence insured against.
example: Fire and theft.

Non-insurable risks are those whose occurrence cannot be reduced to the mathematical probability and therefore cannot be insured against.
eg. Changes in demand for final products and supply of raw materials.

Large firms are at a definite advantage in bearing non-insurable risk. To meet fluctuations in demand, large firms can diversify their output or develop new export markets.

On the supply side, materials can be obtained from different sources to guard agaisnt events such as crop failures and strikes.

To reduce the impact of changes in demand and supply, large firms are in a better position to compensate an area of loss with other areas of gain. They have better survival rates.

vi. Research and Development economies

Larger firms can afford to build laboratories and employ researchers. Such facilities involve high initial capital outlay. The greater the firm's output, the more these overhead costs are spread. R&D may lead to improvements in techniques that can further reduce costs of production.

vii. Welfare economies

Efficiency of workers can be increased by improving the conditions under which they work and by the provision of canteens and other welfare services. Only the larger firms will be able to afford such programmes designed to encourage higher productivity from the workers.

viii. Economies of scope

Economies of scope are enjoyed when increasing the range of products produced by a firm reduces the cost of producing each one. This is because various overhead costs and financial and managerial economies can be shared among the products.
For example, a firm that produces a whole range of CD players, amplifiers and tuners can benefit from shared marketing and distribution costs and the bulk purchase of electronic products.

An-mei Hsu and her mother

Conflict-

Due to popo’s influence from young
à “To say her name is to spit on your father’s grave”

Her impression of her mother was bad
à “I felt unlucky that she was my mother”

She yearns to acknowledge her mother but due to Popo’s warnings, she was inhibited.
à “My heart felt like crickets scratching to get out of a cage.”

Bond & Relation

The both have them have a very strong affinity for each other and the link between them is extremely strong and intense
à “ She cried with a wailing voice that was so sad. And then I remembered the dream with my mother’s voice”

An-Mei lived for the love she has for her mother
à “Even your mother has used up her tears and left. If you do not get well soon, she will forget you.”
à “I came hurrying back from the other world to find my mother”

An-Mei could feel for her mother-a sign that their relationship is extremely strong.
à “But I knew she was my mother because I could feel her pain”
à “She did not need to explain that Popo chased her out of the house when I was dying...I knew this as well”

There was an extreme resemblance between An-Mei and her mother—Just like how her mother passed physical features to her, strength was passed down as well.
à “And when she did, I saw my own face looking back at me”
à “I wanted to touch her face, the one that looked like mine”

An-mei chose to leva with her mother despite Popo’s condemnation.
à “Throwing your life away… never lifting your head again”

Influence

An-mei learns the importance of shou from her mother, especially when her mother displayed it.
à Her mother was willing to suffer the pain “to try to cure Popo”.
à “This is how a daughter honours her mother. It is the shou so deep. The pain of the flesh is nothing.”



Her mother teaches her to be strong
à “it is useless to cry. Your tears do not wash away your sorrows. They feed someone elses’s joy. And that is why you must learn to swallow your own tears”

An-Mei, from her mother, learnt the reality of life, Appearance vs. Reality and learnt not to be deceived by appearances.
à “How easy it is to lose myself to something false”

An-mei’s mother sacrificed herself to pass on the strength to An-Mei and gave An-Mei the power of her voice which later accessed An-mei to gain what she wanted.
à “She would rather kill her own weak spirit so she could give me a stronger one”

Similarities

Both of them are strong-willed. Anmei’s mother kept her dignity despite the shameful past.
à “He promised to revere her as if she had been First Wife, his only wife.”
An-Mei revealed her strong will through the Bing incident
à “There’s a section called ‘Deaths”, and that’s where she wrote ‘Bing Hsu’ lightly, in erasable pencil.”

Both of them show great love and affection for their children. While Anmei’s mother died for her, An-Mei constantly gave Rose advice on how to salvage their relationship.

Jing-mei & Suyuan

Conflict

Misinterpretation of mother’s hopes and expectations:
à“I’m not going to play anymore…Why should I? I’m not a genius”
“You think I want you to be genius? Hnnh! What for! Who ask you?”

Miscommunication:
à “These kind of explanations made me feel like my mother and I spoke two different languages, which we did. I talked to her in English, she answered back in Chinese”
à ”We translated each other’s meanings and I seemed to hear less than what was said, while my mother heard more”
à “I was tempted to ask if she really had put poison in a fish”
à “I can never remember things I didn’t understand in the first place”

Bond & Influence

Suyuan never gave up hope on Jing-mei, harboring the strong belief that Jing-mei could rise above her current self:
à “Four o’clock, she reminded me as if it were any other day”

Suyuan was fully aware of the positive traits that Jing-mei possessed:
à “My mother looked at me and smiled. ‘Only you pick that crab. Nobody else take it. I already know this. Everybody else want best quality. You thinking different.’ ”

Suyuan allowed Jing-mei to gain confidence that she did accomplish something when she show care, concern and selflessness to others, and it was the best of her own ability. She also learns that one does not have to be famous, or a genius, or greatly wealthy in order to be successful.

We need to make our own choices in life and find our own life's importance.

Suyuan was very hopeful
à “Because they had known for many years about my mother’s search for her twin daughters, her endless hope.”

Jing-mei, on the other hand, had a low self-esteem
à “And I sat there feeling as if my hair were coated with diseases”

Chapter I- Physical Quantities and units
Scalar- A quantity having magnitude only
Vector- A quantity having magnitude and direction

Chapter II- Kinematics
Distance: Total path length taken between two points
Displacement: Change of position of a point in a particular direction
Speed: The rate of change of distance [distance/time]
Velocty: The rate of change of displacement [displacement/time]
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity [ (final velocity-initial velocity)/time ]

Chapter 3- Dynamics
Newton's first law: An object at rest will continue to stay at rest and a moving object will continue to move in a straight line if there are no external forces acting on it.
Newton's Second Law- The acceleration of an object is directly proportionate and in the same direction as the force applied but inversely proportionate to the mass of the object. [ f = ma ]
Newton's Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Chapter 4- Mass, Weight, Density
Mass: Measure of the amount of matter that an object contains
Weight: Attractive force exerted on an object due to gravity. [W= mg]
Inertia: The tendency for an object at rest to remain at rest and an moving object to continue moving in the same magnitude and direction.
Gravitational field: region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction.
Density: Mass per unit volume

Chapter 5- Moments
Moment: Product of the force and the perpendicular distance of its line of action from the pivot. [m= f x d ]
Principle of moment: Total anti-clockwise moment is equal to total clock-wise moment about the same point when an object is in equilibrum.
Centre of gravity: A point through which the entire weight of the object seems to act
Stability: Ability of an object to regain its original position after it has been displaced slightly.

Chapter 6- Pressure
pressure: force acting normally per unit area
Boyle's law: Under a constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportionate to its volume.

Chapter 7- Energy, work, power
Energy: The ability to do work
kinetic energy: [ (1/2)mv^2 ]
Potential energy: mgh
Work: product of the force and the distance moved by the object in the direction of the force. [W=f x d]

Chapter 8- Kinetic Particle Theory
Brownian motion: The molement of smoke particles is due to the random bombardment by the air molecules and proves that air molecules are at random motion.

Chapter 9- Transfer of thermal energy
thermal equilibrum: When two objects have the same temperature, they are in thermal equilibrum
Conduction: Process by which heat is transmittes through a medium from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature
Convection: Process by which heat is transmitted from one place in another through the movement of the heated particle of a gas or liquid.
Radiation: Method of heat transfer whereby heat energy is transmitted from a hot object to a cold object in the form of infra-red and does not require any medium.

Chapter 10- Temperature
Thermometer- Main design features
Mercury contained in thin-wall glass bulb: allows conduction of heat quickly through the glass to the liquid
Bulb made small to contain little liquid- A small amount of liquid will be more responsive to heat
Bore of capillary tube is fine and uniform- Fine tube allows noticeable movement of the liquid column for a small change in temperature. Uniform tube ensures even expansion of the liquid.
Walls of capillary tube made thick: magnifying glass for easy reading
Size of thermometer is small: portable and cheap to produce
Sensitivity: Change in reading of the thermometer for a small change in temperature
Range: Span of temperature that thermometer can measure
Responsiveness: Ability of thermometer to give the reading in a short time

Chapter 11- Thermal properties of matter
Heat capacity: Amount of energy that is needed to heat the object up by 1Kelvin
Specific heat capacity: Amount of energy needed to heat one kg of an object up by 1 kelvin
Latent heat of fusion/vaporization: Energy needed to change state of given object of given mass at a constant temperature

Chapter 12- General wave properties
Transverse wave: The particle are moving in a perpendicular motion from the direction of travel of the wave
Longitudinal wave: The particles are moving in a parallel motion from the direction of travel of the wave
Wavelength: Min. distance for one wave to be generated
Amplitude: The max. displacement of the particle from its rest postion.
Wavefront: A line which joins all the identical points of the wave
Period: time taken to complete one wave
Frequency: number of waves generated per second

Chapter 13- Light
Laws of reflection:
1. The incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lie on the same plane
2. Angle of incidence= angle of reflection
Laws of refraction:
1.The incident ray, refracted ray and normal are all in the same plane
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angel of refraction is a constant. [Snell's law]
Critical Angle: Angel of incidence in the optically denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the less dense medium is 90 deg.
Total internal reflection: When light travels from a denser to a less dense medium and the angle of incidence if greater than the critical angle, all the light is reflected back into the optically denser medium.
Magnification= height of object/height of image= image distance/object distance

Chapter 15- Sound
Principle of transmission: Rarefaction & compression
Amplitude and loudness are directly proportionate
Frequency and pitch are directly proportionate

Chapter 17-Current Electricity
Current: rate of charge flowing
EMF: energy supplied to drive one coulomb of charge around the circuit.
PD: Energy converted per unit charge
Ohm's law: Current passing through the conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points.

Chapter 19- Practical electricity
Electrical power: Rate of using electical energy

BLOGGER IS SCREWED

Development

Definition: The process of change that improves the quality of life of the people living in a society based on material wealth


GOALS
1.Improving the economy of the country (wealth)
-Diversifying(expanding) secondary(high-tech manufacture) and tertiary(service industries)
-Practising high-tech farming
-Increasing exports to foreign countries

2.Raising the quality of life of the people
(People are able to go beyond their basic needs)
Rising affluence = Better quality of life
Citizens receive high income


STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

STAGE 1: TRADITIONAL SOCIETY
-low tech
-subsistence farming
-low level of saving
-poor tranport system

STAGE 2: PRECONDITIONS FOR TAKE-OFF (like plane, except it's development)
-primary industry commercialised, most products export
-growth of an urban system, transport network, supporting infrastructue
-standard of living slowly rising
-a bit of tech progress
-1,2 industires developed

STAGE 3: GRADUAL INDUSTRIALISATION
-Commercial farming
-Rapid growth of modern secondary industry
-Development of tertiary industry
-More technology to improve industrial productivity
-Better Transport and communication system
-Increase in urban population and rapid improvement in the standard of living

STAGE 4: drive into maturity
- rapid economic growth
-modern tech
-secondary industry well established
-older industries may decline; new one appear&expand
-primary industry less important
-rural areas suffer depopulation
-transport facilites more complex
-rapid urbanization
-standard of living still go up

STAGE 5: AGE OF HIGH MASS CONSUMPTION
-rapid expansion of services
-rapid growth of urban centres
-production of more luxury goods; people's consumption level rise above basic needs
-high standard of living


ECONOMIC FACTORS

1.Exploitation of natural resources
2.Transport and communication facilities
3.Industrial development
4.Employment data
5.Commercial energy consumption

GDP
-net income of all residents of country in a give year
-from production of good n services & overseas employment & incomes gained thru investments abroad

GNP per capita is an average income of each member of the population

Organic Chemistry

General Formulas
Alkanes - CnH2n+2
Alkenes - CnH2n
Alcohols - CnH2n+1OH
Carboxylic Acid - CnH2n+1COOH

Isomers - Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae

Alkanes - Saturated Hydrocarbons because they contain only single bonds
Alkenes - Unsaturated Hydrocarbons because they contain double bonds
(Any molecule which contains double bonds between carbon atoms is described as unsaturated)

Viscosity
The alkanes become more viscous, i.e more difficult to pour out. This is because long carbon chain s are much more likely to get tangled up. This makes it difficult for the liquid to flow.

Flammabilty
As the molecular sice of the alkane molecule increases, the percentage of carbon in the alkane molecule also increases. As a result, the alkane becomes less flammable, i.e more difficult to burn and the flame becomes smoky. The smoky flame is caused by incomplete combustion of carbon atoms

Combustion

Combustion of alkanes in excess air or oxygen produces carbon dioxide and water vapour.

Ch4(g) + 2O2(g) -heat-> CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) -heat-> 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)

These reactions are highly exothermic, thus alkanes make good fuels

If there is an insufficient supply of air or oxygen, combustion of alkanes is incomplete and the product formed are carbon monoxide and water vapour.

2Ch4(g) + 3O2(g) -heat-> 2CO(g) + 4H2O(g)

or CH4(g) + O2(g) -heat-> C(g) + 2H2O(g)

Substitution reactions

Alkanes do not react with most chemicals but they do react with chlorine in the presence of UV light as a catalyst.

Methane + Chlorine -UV light-> Chloromethane + Hydrogen Chloride
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) -UV light-> CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

Manufacture of Alkenes

Alkenes are maufacture by the catalytic cracking of petroloeum. The breaking down of a long-chain hydrocarbon into smalled molecules is called cracking

Catalyst: Aluminium Oxide/Silicon Oxide
Condition: Hight Temperature - 600 degree celcius
Product: Short-Chain Alkane/Alkane

Cracking is used to produce high-grade petrol.

Additional reactions are reactions in which an unsaturated organic compund combines with another element or compound to form a new single compound.
(During reaction, the double bond is replaced by two single bonds.)

Hydrogenation

Catalyst:
Condition:
Procedure:
Equation:
Importance:

Bromination

Objective:
Catalyst:
Condition:
Product:
Equation:

Hydrogenation (Reaction with steam)

Catalyst:
Condition:
Product:
Equation:

Polymerisation (long-chained molecules)
Condition:

Polyunsaturated Fats and Oils:

Difference between fats and oils:

Chapter 2, People: A Country’s Most Precious Resource

Singapore’s population growth (1950-2000)
1950s-1960s: rapid population growth
Post-war ‘baby boom’

Problems faced:
-unemployment
-overcrowded housing (slums and squatters with unhygienic conditions)
-shortage of health care services

= posed strains on Singapore’s limited resources
= resources inadequate to provide decent standards of living


Solution (policies implemented):
-Singapore Family Planning and Population Board (set up in 1966) to reduce number of births
-Three five year plans (1966-1981)
-- 1st plan: emphasized need for small families
-- 2nd plan: promoted ‘stop at 2’ children regardless of gender of children
-- 3rd plan: aimed for maintenance of number of children born/woman at 2.1 children (number of children needed to replace population)
+Legalising abortion and encouraging use of contraceptives
+For 3rd and subsequent children, no paid maternity leave
+No priority given to large families in allocation of government flats
+No income tax relief for fourth and subsequent children
+For each additional child, delivery charges in government hospitals increased


From mid 1970s: slow population growth
Number of children born dropped to 2.1 children target (in 1975), and then dropped further
-effective government measures (polices and controls measures)
-economic and social changes
+Education changed attitudes towards marriage and children [job opportunities]
+Delay in marriage (more women entered workforce) and motherhood [changing role of women]
+Increasing number of Singaporeans remained single [children= financial liability due to high cost]

=fewer babies born


1980s
Fall in birth leads to shrinking population

Problems faced:
-shortage of manpower
-unable to produce sufficient talents
-ageing population
-fewer young workers in workforce (older workforce)
-fewer young men to serve in armed forces and defend country

= hinder development
= fewer people to drive economy and generate growth
= more resources necessary to take care of increasing number of senior citizens; strain on country’s resources


Solution (policies implemented):
-Promoting larger families (made changes to policies in 1987)
+Encouraged families to have 3+ children if they can afford it
+Income tax relief for up to 4th child
+Monthly subsidy for working mothers for each of 1st 4 children attending approved childcare centers
+Priority given to families with 3+ children for bigger government flats
+Medisave can be used for hospital, delivery charges for 1st 3 children

= limited success; many still chose to have less children

-Attracting foreign talent
+Relaxed immigration policy to attract foreigners with skills Singapore required (1989) [foreign experts and investors in MNCs]
+Subsidized housing, attractive education packages

= influx of foreigners; society more cosmopolitan, enrich culture, increase in population
= inflow of high-technology, creation of jobs requiring skills; ensured local demand, raising international image
= boost quality of manpower (unable to face stiff competition from countries e.g. HK, Taiwan with locals only)



Singapore’s ageing population
-post war baby boom—large population consisting of older workers
-fall in number of births (since 1975)
-longer life expectancy due to improvements in health care services, medical technology and high standard of living
Good health care services
= latest medical facilities and modern medicine equipped in hospitals
= well-trained doctors and nurses
=good health protection for people (e.g. every child is immunized against diseases like tuberculosis and hepatitis B)
High standard of living
= clean water
=good sanitation facilities
= healthy lifestyle


Senior citizens assets to society
-educated (by 2030, estimated that 62% of citizens 65-74 years old will have at least secondary education, rather than 11% in 1995)
-health and fit
‘Back to Work’ program helps senior citizens find suitable jobs and necessary training
Retirement age from 60 to 62
able to contribute to economy and live an active life
-valuable skills, knowledge, work experience and talents
Contribute to family, looking after grandchildren, volunteer services as mentors to young people, help welfare organizations, advisers in government organizations and private companies
-promote growth of certain manufacturing and service industries
Increase in demands of certain goods and services


Impact of an ageing population
Demand for health care and social services:
-old folks more prone to age-related health problems, e.g. loss of hearing, failing eye sight, rheumatism
-smaller families, less children to care for elderly
+Community-based services (day care centers, home nursing care, befriender service, nursing homes for aged)
+Large pool of trained welfare staff required to take care of increasing number of senior citizens (geriatricians, nurses, counsellors, volunteers
+Senior citizen-friendly public facilities (support hand-bars in public toilets, lifts in MRT stations)


Strain on working people:
-government has to use more revenue to provide services and facilities required by senior citizens
+Revenue partially made up of taxes; taxes would have to be increased


Preparing for an ageing population:
-‘many helping hands’ approach
+Involvement of individual, family, and community, government support
+Reduce over dependency on government

-individual responsibility
+Attend pre-retirement talks; learn how to plan for old age
+Regular medical check-ups, lead an active and healthy lifestyle; be independent
--reduce dependency on others, and save on medical bills
+Maintain proper diet, engage in regular exercise from young
-- reduce chances of getting illnesses (diabetes, heart problems)
+Spend more time with family members and friends to strengthen bonds
--better support, active social life in old age

-family care
+Patience, show care and concern
+Ensure house is safe
+Ask for opinions and include old in family
--let them feel wanted
+Understand physical, emotional changes that occur when people grow older

-community help
+Subsidies to voluntary welfare organizations that run community-based services for senior citizens (Home Nursing Foundation, Singapore Action Group for Elders)
+Some community organizations offer free health checks and run recreational activities for senior citizens
--help senior citizens remain physically, mentally, socially active

-government support
+Tribunal for maintenance for parents
--those incapable of supporting self can go to court for financial support from children who are capable of, but do not support them
+Tax relief
--income tax reduction
--taking care of elderly parents, grandparents or great grandparents
--contributing to own or elderly dependants’ CPF accounts
+Public housing schemes
--first-time buyers of government flats can obtain housing grant if within vicinity of parent’s house
+Central Provident Fund (CPF)
--savings in special account for retirement, emergency, and investment purposes
--money from medisave can be used for medical expenses
-- CPF members can withdraw savings, leaving a minimal sum, upon age 55
--retirement account—members receive monthly sum from retirement account

Chapter 9

Education in Switzerland (do we really have to learn this?)

The Swiss education system

Structure of the education system
Run by 26 independent governed cantons

-Each canton plans and decides on the type of schools to build, how long pupils must study, what they should learn, what teaching materials to use

-Primary and lower secondary education is compulsory.

-All schools have to meet the standards required by the Federal government

-Vocational training

• 7 out of 10 pupils opt for vocational training

Ensures a steady supply of well trained young workers and technicians and a strong workforce of skilled craftsmen.

• Apprentice is highly valued

Preparing pupils for the cantonal way fo life
Switzerland is divided into 26 cantons or states. The people elect their own cantonal government and vote on matter like education, public and local taxes.

Education in Switzerland VS S'pore - Similarities

• Strong emphasis on education-seen as the key to continues successs and development
• Similar needs of instilling loyalty to country, appreciation for one's own ethnic culture, understanding of the culture of others.
• Strong focus on imparting life-long skills

9. Providing Education and Health Services for the people

Education in SG - Policies & Practices
1960s - early 1970s
Educating the masses and building a harmonious and cohesive society

Proving a place in school for every child
1960s - A period of rapid population growth --> Goverment built more school

Building national loyalty
1960s - Parents send their children to school which taught in the language of their race --> Created a barrier to nation building because of absence of a common bond among pupils of different cultures
(thus inducing lack of national loyalty and social cohesion)

Government realised the need to inculate loyalty and national pride --> introduction of daily flah-raising and pledge taking ceremony in schools in 1966
Urgh......

Fostering Social Cohesion
How the government fostered social cohesion:
-Implemented measures that show fairness to all races, eg

• loaned textbooks to needy pupils regardless of which language stream they came from
• ensured that all government schools had the same facilities

-Introduced a common exmination (primary school-PSLE)
-1960 - Created an integrated school system
-Implemented a policy of bilinguallism

Preparing for economic development
1960s - a period of serious uemployment because entrepot trade which SG traditionally relied on was inadequate in creating and sustaining jobs

Manufacturing was seen as the solution --> Goverment equipped the young with relevent skills by introducing technical education in 1969, set up more technical schools and vocational institutes.

Late 1970s-1980s
Streaming - Introduced at primary schools and secondary levels to cater to the different abilities and learning paces of pupils

Streaming at Secondary level - Special, Express and Normal courses

Teaching moral Values - To inculate in pupils a common set of desirable moral values such as social responsibility and loyalty to the country
(Helped to develop SG identity and contribute to survivalism and success of nation a.k.a be a patriot)

Encouraging Creativity (global recession) --> changes had to be made to revive economy and stimulate economic growth